A meta-analysis of RCTs found that ground and joint reaction exercise of at least 24 weeks produced small but significant improvements in femoral neck and lumbar spine bone density in postmenopausal women.
Reported an improvementMeta-analysis · 1,632 participants pooled · 24 weeks · 2012PostmenopausalCited 96 timesPubMed
A meta-analysis of eight trials in sedentary postmenopausal women found walking programmes did not significantly change spine bone density but showed a positive effect at the femoral neck.
Mixed resultsMeta-analysis · 2008PostmenopausalCited 153 timesPubMed
A meta-analysis of 18 randomized trials found aerobics, weight-bearing and resistance exercise increased spine bone density in postmenopausal women, and walking also increased hip bone density.
Reported an improvementMeta-analysis · 2002PostmenopausalCited 158 timesPubMed
A meta-analysis of 10 trials found walking alone did not significantly change spine, radius or whole body bone density, but improved femoral neck density after more than 6 months.
Mixed resultsMeta-analysis · 2013Midlife womenCited 92 timesPubMed
A review of 28 randomised trials in postmenopausal women aged 50 to 65 found walking combined with resistance training could preserve weight and bone density and increase muscle strength.
Reported an improvementSystematic review · 2,646 participants pooled · 2004Early postmenopausalCited 219 timesPubMed
A meta-analysis of 18 trials found walking, running and aerobic exercise programs reduced lumbar spine bone density loss in postmenopausal women but had no effect on forearm or femoral bone mass.
Mixed resultsMeta-analysis · 1997PostmenopausalCited 119 timesPubMed
A meta-analysis of ten studies of walking programmes in postmenopausal women and older adults found a significant positive effect on lumbar spine bone density but not at the femur or heel.
Mixed resultsMeta-analysis · 2005PostmenopausalCited 44 timesPubMed
A systematic review of 59 trials found strength training and multi-component or vibration exercise programs helped maintain or increase bone mass in older adults, especially postmenopausal women.
Reported an improvementSystematic review · 2012PostmenopausalCited 205 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women with a prior arm fracture did self-paced brisk walking for 2 years, and researchers found a small increase in hip bone density but more falls than controls.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 165 women · 104 weeks · 1997PostmenopausalCited 152 timesPubMed
Untrained postmenopausal women did 8 months of whole-body vibration or walking, with vibration increasing hip bone density and balance more than walking, while spine bone density was unchanged in both.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 28 women · 32 weeks · 2006PostmenopausalCited 170 timesPubMed
In 75 inactive postmenopausal breast cancer survivors, 6 months of moderate aerobic exercise reduced body fat, increased lean mass, and maintained bone density compared with usual care.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 75 women · 26 weeks · 2009PostmenopausalCited 123 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women did 2 years of resistance and walking exercise with or without soy isoflavones, and exercise groups maintained hip bone density and improved balance compared with control.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 351 women · 104 weeks · 2013PostmenopausalCited 62 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal Japanese women who walked 45 minutes 3 times weekly for a year had reduced fat mass, increased HDL cholesterol, and less bone loss at the hip.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 136 women · 52 weeks · 2006Early postmenopausalCited 87 timesPubMed
In postmenopausal Japanese women over 24 weeks, walking combined with isoflavone intake increased HDL cholesterol and decreased body fat, with bone density effects depending on equol-producer status.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 128 women · 24 weeks · 2006PostmenopausalCited 82 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women with low bone mass did weight-bearing exercise, aerobic dancing and flexibility work three times weekly for 12 months, and spinal bone density stabilized versus decline in controls, with improved fitness and wellbeing.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 124 women · 52 weeks · 1996PostmenopausalCited 104 timesPubMed
In a one-year trial, 36 postmenopausal women who walked had a 0.5% increase in lumbar spine trabecular bone density, versus a 7.0% decrease in sedentary women.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 36 women · 52 weeks · 1991PostmenopausalCited 135 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women who walked above their anaerobic threshold for 30 minutes three times a week for 7 months increased lumbar bone density, unlike controls or those walking below threshold.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 33 women · 30 weeks · 1993PostmenopausalCited 113 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis did 1 to 2 years of walking and gymnastic exercise with calcium and vitamin D; lumbar bone density increased with training but the gain was lost after stopping exercise.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 35 women · 104 weeks · 2001PostmenopausalCited 83 timesPubMed
Sedentary perimenopausal women did 18 months of calisthenics or endurance training; endurance training maintained femoral neck bone density versus controls, calisthenics showed no significant effect.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 105 women · 78 weeks · 1998PerimenopausalCited 61 timesPubMed
In 112 postmenopausal women with low bone density and forearm fractures, one year of walking plus strength training increased hip bone density slightly versus a decline in controls.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 92 women · 52 weeks · 2008PostmenopausalCited 46 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis who did 6 weeks of treadmill walking, with or without a weighted vest, showed improved bone turnover markers and balance, with greater balance gains using the vest.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 36 women · 6 weeks · 2013PostmenopausalCited 48 timesPubMed
Over 2 years, postmenopausal women doing resistance training and walking with creatine supplementation showed no extra bone density benefit over placebo, but some bone geometry and lean mass measures improved.
No difference foundRandomised trial · 237 women · 104 weeks · 2023PostmenopausalCited 24 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women with vertebral fractures who did a 6-month home exercise program of stretching, strength training and walking reported better quality of life and balance than controls, with no change in bone density.
No difference foundRandomised trial · 26 weeks · 2003PostmenopausalCited 113 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women did a year of walking and aerobic training; the exercise group showed a greater increase in osteoprotegerin, a bone-protective marker, than controls.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 92 women · 52 weeks · 2012PostmenopausalCited 36 timesPubMed
Previously sedentary postmenopausal women aged 60 to 70 walked briskly for 12 months, and researchers found reduced heel bone loss and improved fitness compared with non-walkers.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 78 women · 52 weeks · 1997PostmenopausalCited 45 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women walked for 30 weeks at different intensities; higher intensity walking above specific thresholds preserved leg bone density and increased leg lean mass.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 43 women · 30 weeks · 2007PostmenopausalCited 40 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women aged 60 to 70 started, continued, or stopped brisk walking for a year; starting walking increased calcaneal ultrasound attenuation, while stopping walking decreased calcaneal bone density.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 68 women · 52 weeks · 2001PostmenopausalCited 37 timesPubMed
In women around age 61, calcium supplementation before and during vigorous treadmill walking attenuated the rise in parathyroid hormone seen with exercise, compared to a control beverage.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 23 women · 2014PostmenopausalCited 33 timesPubMed
In a 1 year trial, 15 early postmenopausal women did low or high impact exercise 3 days a week; both groups maintained bone density while non-exercisers lost bone.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 15 women · 52 weeks · 1992Early postmenopausalCited 43 timesPubMed
In 24 sedentary postmenopausal women with obesity, 10 weeks of low-volume walking reduced body weight, fat mass, blood glucose and HbA1c, raised fitness, and did not change bone markers.
No difference foundRandomised trial · 24 women · 10 weeks · 2024PostmenopausalCited 16 timesPubMed
A review of 6 RCTs found strength training and walking improved bone density and lean mass in early postmenopausal women, but no exercise type improved these outcomes during perimenopause.
Mixed resultsSystematic review · 2025PerimenopausalCited 2 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women did 2 years of fast walking or high impact training with calcium and vitamin D, and high impact training improved femoral neck bone density more than walking.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 34 women · 104 weeks · 2018PostmenopausalCited 14 timesPubMed
Fifty postmenopausal women with osteopenia did 12 weeks of light to moderate aerobic walking; bone formation and resorption markers did not differ from controls, but pain, walking speed and balance improved.
No difference foundRandomised trial · 50 women · 12 weeks · 2025PostmenopausalCited 9 timesPubMed
UK postmenopausal women who walked briskly for about 20 minutes a day for one year showed genotype-dependent bone density changes, with one vitamin D receptor genotype group gaining spinal bone density versus controls.
Mixed resultsRandomised trial · 69 women · 52 weeks · 1998PostmenopausalCited 14 timesPubMed
Perimenopausal women did 48 weeks of Tai Chi or brisk walking; Tai Chi increased lumbar spine bone density and walking increased femoral neck density, effects persisting 8 weeks after stopping.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 48 weeks · 2022PerimenopausalCited 17 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women who walked over 7.5 miles per week had higher whole-body bone density and slower leg bone loss than those walking less than 1 mile per week.
Reported an improvementCohort study · 239 women · 52 weeks · 1994PostmenopausalCited 89 timesPubMed
In postmenopausal women, 8 weeks of Nordic walking with a resistance shock absorber improved femur strength index and shoulder muscle torque but did not change whole-body or spine bone density.
No difference foundRandomised trial · 25 women · 8 weeks · 2022PostmenopausalCited 5 timesPubMed
Overweight postmenopausal women added walking to a weight loss program and showed a 2% increase in femoral neck bone density versus weight loss alone, linked to reduced inflammatory markers.
Reported an improvementControlled trial · 86 women · 2009PostmenopausalCited 59 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women did a 20-week graduated walking program with or without hormone therapy; walking alone did not change bone turnover markers and added no benefit to hormone therapy.
No difference foundRandomised trial · 22 women · 20 weeks · 2016PostmenopausalCited 5 timesPubMed
In menopausal women, 8 weeks of walking or bone joint exercise increased estrogen and bone mineral density and decreased RANKL and PTH compared to a control group.
Reported an improvementRandomised trial · 8 weeks · 2024Midlife womenCited 3 timesPubMed
Diabetic postmenopausal women did treadmill walking before or after meals; exercising after meals raised bone formation markers and lowered insulin resistance more than exercising before meals.
Reported an improvementControlled trial · 15 women · 2019PostmenopausalCited 13 timesPubMed
In 63 postmenopausal women with pre-diabetes and fatty liver disease, 8.6 months of Nordic walking maintained femur and spine bone density while non-exercising controls lost bone density.
Reported an improvementControlled trial · 63 women · 37 weeks · 2021PostmenopausalCited 9 timesPubMed
In 160 postmenopausal women, an education program promoting walking and nutrition was linked to increased lumbar spine bone density at 12 months versus a control group whose density decreased.
Reported an improvementControlled trial · 160 women · 52 weeks · 2024PostmenopausalCited 6 timesPubMed
In 40 postmenopausal women, 24 weeks of walking and strength training combined with dieting increased muscle strength, while bone density and VO2max did not change.
No difference foundControlled trial · 40 women · 24 weeks · 1997PostmenopausalCited 14 timesPubMed
In 580 postmenopausal English women, stair climbing and brisk walking pace, but not total activity, were linked to higher bone density at the hip and whole body.
Reported an improvementCross-sectional study · 580 women · 1999PostmenopausalCited 47 timesPubMed
Breast cancer survivors within 2 years of menopause did a 16 to 24 week weighted walking programme, which maintained weight and bone markers without significant change overall.
No difference foundBefore-and-after study · 26 women · 24 weeks · 2008Early postmenopausalCited 19 timesPubMed
A review reported that in postmenopausal women, high-impact and resistance exercise only mildly increased or maintained bone density, while swimming showed no effect.
Mixed resultsOther · 2009PostmenopausalCited 238 timesPubMed
Postmenopausal women with osteopenia or osteoporosis did high-impact training, impact plus calcium/vitamin D, or brisk walking plus supplements for 2 years; the impact plus supplement group showed the largest bone density gains.
Reported an improvementBefore-and-after study · 39 women · 104 weeks · 2022PostmenopausalCited 4 timesPubMed
A review reported that combining walking with other weight-bearing exercise, along with calcium and vitamin D, helped reduce bone mineral density loss and fractures in postmenopausal women.
Reported an improvementOther · 2010PostmenopausalCited 119 timesPubMed
This review reported that vigorous aerobic and strength training generally increased bone density in postmenopausal women, while walking alone was relatively ineffective.
Mixed resultsOther · 1992PostmenopausalCited 135 timesPubMed
In 234 postmenopausal women doing 5 months of interval walking training, bone mineral density at the spine and femoral neck increased more in those with lower baseline bone density.
Reported an improvementBefore-and-after study · 234 women · 20 weeks · 2024PostmenopausalCited 1 timesPubMed
A review of trials and cohort studies found physical activity slows bone loss in postmenopausal women in a dose dependent manner and may increase bone mineral density.
Reported an improvementOther · 2009PostmenopausalCited 58 timesPubMed
A review reported that combining progressive resistance training with walking or aerobic dance may help spine and hip bone density, while whole body vibration did not improve bone density in postmenopausal women.
Mixed resultsOther · 2012PostmenopausalCited 44 timesPubMed
A biomechanical modeling study in postmenopausal women found fast walking and running produced higher femoral neck bone strains than normal walking, suggesting potential to help preserve bone density.
Reported an improvementOther · 2018PostmenopausalCited 32 timesPubMed
In 8 pre-menopausal women with idiopathic osteoporosis, a year of walking and training plus calcium and vitamin D increased spine bone density by 3.5% but not femoral neck.
Mixed resultsBefore-and-after study · 8 women · 52 weeks · 2008OtherCited 1 timesPubMed
A protocol describes a 9 month mHealth guided jumping and fast walking program in 120 postmenopausal women to test effects on bone density, with results not yet reported.
Direction not statedOther · 120 women · 36 weeks · 2025PostmenopausalCited 4 timesPubMed
A review reported that weight-bearing activity and resistance training may reduce bone loss after menopause, and activities improving strength and balance may lower fall and fracture risk.
Reported an improvementOther · 1998Midlife womenCited 19 timesPubMed
A narrative review reported that resistance training and weight-bearing activities like running or walking increased bone mineral density in young people and slowed bone density decline in postmenopausal women.
Reported an improvementOther · 1995PostmenopausalCited 4 timesPubMed